Many plastic surgery procedures are designed to support, repair, or change the face and body. A procedure may be cosmetic when the main goal is to improve appearance. When plastic surgery helps repair form or function after injury, cancer, birth differences, burns, or medical conditions, it is called reconstructive surgery.
People across Canada consider plastic surgery for many reasons. Some patients want a more rested appearance. Others want to restore body shape after pregnancy, weight loss, or aging. Others want help after trauma, skin cancer, breast cancer, or a congenital concern. A safe plan should be based on your anatomy, goals, health, lifestyle, and recovery time.
This page explains the main types of plastic surgery procedures in Canada, with sections on facial surgery, breast surgery, body contouring, reconstructive surgery, and non-surgical cosmetic treatments. It also covers key questions to consider before a plastic surgery consultation.
Understanding Cosmetic vs. Reconstructive Plastic Surgery
In general, plastic surgery is grouped into cosmetic surgery and reconstructive surgery.
What Is Cosmetic Plastic Surgery?
Cosmetic surgery is used to improve or refine appearance. These procedures are usually elective, which means they are planned by choice and are not medically required.
Patients often choose cosmetic surgery to help with:
- Refining facial balance
- Improving visible signs of aging
- Changing body proportions
- Restoring lost volume after pregnancy or weight loss
- Improving the nose, eyelids, ears, lips, breasts, abdomen, arms, or thighs
- Supporting a better fit in clothing
- Supporting confidence with natural-looking changes
Cosmetic procedures in Canada are usually not covered by provincial health plans and are often paid for privately. Pricing may change based on procedure complexity, surgeon experience, facility costs, anesthesia, follow-up care, and location.
Reconstructive Surgery
The goal of reconstructive plastic surgery is to help restore normal form and function. This type of surgery may help after cancer surgery, trauma, burns, infections, birth differences, or other medical conditions.
Examples of reconstructive plastic surgery include:
- Breast reconstruction after breast cancer surgery
- Skin cancer reconstruction following tumour removal
- Cleft lip and palate repair
- Burn reconstruction
- Hand repair surgery
- Surgical scar revision
- Surgical wound repair
- Facial injury reconstruction
- Correction of congenital concerns
Some reconstructive plastic surgery may qualify for provincial coverage if it is considered medically necessary. Cosmetic changes are usually not covered.
Facial Plastic Surgery Procedures
Facial procedures may be used to improve balance, soften aging changes, and restore a rested look. For many patients, the goal is not to look like another person. The best results often look natural and balanced.
Facelift Surgery, Also Called Rhytidectomy
A facelift or rhytidectomy can improve loose tissue in the lower face and jawline. This procedure may soften jowls, tighten loose facial skin, and improve deeper folds around the mouth.
Facelift surgery can address concerns such as:
- Jawline jowls
- Sagging skin in the lower face
- Deeper smile lines
- Descent of cheek tissue
- A blurred face and neck transition
Many modern facelift techniques focus on deeper support layers under the skin. This can create a smoother, longer-lasting result without a pulled look. Many patients combine facelift surgery with a neck lift, eyelid surgery, brow lift, or facial fat grafting.
Neck Lift Surgery (Platysmaplasty)
Neck lift surgery may treat loose skin, visible muscle bands, and fullness below the chin. Tightening the neck muscle may be described medically as platysmaplasty.
Common reasons for neck lift surgery include:
- Vertical neck bands
- Extra neck skin
- Reduced jawline sharpness
- A heavy area under the chin
- A loose “turkey neck” appearance
In some cases, the plan includes tightening both skin and muscle. Under-chin liposuction may be helpful for certain patients. Since aging often affects both the face and neck, a facelift and neck lift may be done in one plan.
Blepharoplasty, or Eyelid Surgery
Eyelid surgery or blepharoplasty helps refresh the eyes by removing or repositioning extra skin, fat, or tissue around the eyelids.
Patients may choose upper eyelid surgery for:
- Heavy upper lids
- Loose upper eyelid skin
- A tired-looking or aged appearance
- Skin resting on the eyelashes
- Vision blockage in certain medical cases
Lower eyelid surgery can address:
- Under-eye puffiness or bags
- Puffy lower eyelids
- Loose skin under the eyes
- Hollow shadows under the eyes
- Eyes that still look tired after rest
Many patients choose eyelid surgery because small improvements around the eyes can make the whole face look more awake and rested.
Brow Lift Surgery for a Heavy Brow
A brow lift, also known as a forehead lift, raises a low or heavy brow. It can improve the upper eye area and reduce forehead heaviness.
Patients may consider a brow lift for:
- Eyebrows that sit too low
- Heavy upper lids from brow descent
- Forehead wrinkles
- Creases between the eyebrows
- A heavy expression that seems tired or stern
Brow lift surgery and eyelid surgery are not the same procedure. The eyelids and brows are different structures, so eyelid surgery treats extra eyelid skin and a brow lift treats brow position. Many patients need either one procedure or the other, while some benefit from both.
Rhinoplasty for Nose Shape and Breathing
Rhinoplasty, often called a nose job, changes the shape, size, or structure of the nose. The procedure can address cosmetic goals, functional concerns, or both.
Nose surgery can address concerns such as:
- A raised bridge bump
- A downward-pointing nasal tip
- A wide or boxy tip
- Nasal crookedness
- Overall nose size or projection
- Asymmetry in the nose
- Breathing issues related to structure
When breathing is part of the concern, the procedure may include work on the septum, which is the wall between the nostrils. This part of surgery is called septoplasty. Cosmetic rhinoplasty changes appearance, while functional nasal surgery focuses on airflow.
Cosmetic Ear Surgery
Ear surgery, also known as otoplasty, changes the shape, position, or size of the ears. Prominent ears that stick out may be improved with otoplasty.
Otoplasty may help with:
- Protruding ears
- Ears that do not match well
- Overdeveloped ear cartilage folds
- Ears that project away from the head
- Earlobe appearance concerns
Both adults and children may choose or need otoplasty. When otoplasty is considered for a child, timing is based on ear growth, maturity, and family goals.
Lip Lift for Upper Lip Balance
Lip lift surgery shortens the area between the upper lip and the base of the nose. This area is known as the upper lip length. This surgery may reveal more of the upper lip without using filler.
Lip lift surgery can help improve:
- A long space between the nose and upper lip
- Less visible upper teeth when smiling
- A less visible upper lip
- Poor balance between the upper and lower lips
- Age-related changes around the mouth
A lip lift is not the same as lip filler. Lip filler adds volume. A lip lift changes the position and shape of the upper lip.
Chin and Jawline Implant Surgery
Balance in the chin, cheeks, or jawline may be improved with facial implants. Chin surgery can improve facial profile balance when the chin looks small compared with the nose or other features.
Facial implant surgery may include:
- Implants for the chin
- Implants for the cheeks
- Jawline implants
Chin surgery may be planned with rhinoplasty when the nose and chin both influence profile balance.
Facial Fat Transfer
With facial fat grafting, fat from the patient’s own body is used to restore facial volume. The fat is often taken from the abdomen or thighs, prepared, and then placed into the face.
Fat grafting to the face can help improve:
- Loss of cheek fullness
- Hollows beneath the eyes
- Volume changes caused by aging
- Thin facial soft tissue
- Uneven facial fullness
Fat grafting can be used alone or with facelift surgery, eyelid surgery, or other facial procedures.
Types of Breast Plastic Surgery
Many patients in Canada consider breast surgery for cosmetic or reconstructive reasons. Patients may want to increase volume, reduce size, lift the breasts, improve symmetry, or restore the breast after cancer surgery.
Breast Augmentation in Canada
Implants or fat transfer may be used in breast augmentation to increase breast size and improve shape. Breast augmentation may use either saline implants or silicone gel implants. Implant choice depends on body type, breast tissue, goals, and surgeon guidance.
Common breast augmentation goals include:
- Naturally smaller breast volume
- Breast volume loss after pregnancy
- Volume loss after weight change
- Uneven breast size or shape
- A desire for more breast fullness in clothing
Patients often worry that breast augmentation may look too large or unnatural. Planning should account for chest width, skin quality, lifestyle, and future maintenance.
Mastopexy, or Breast Lift Surgery
Breasts that have dropped can be raised and reshaped with a breast lift, also called mastopexy. It does not mainly add volume. Its main goal is better breast position and shape.
Common breast lift concerns include:
- Sagging breasts
- Nipples that sit low or point down
- Enlarged or stretched areolas
- Breast skin laxity
- Breast changes after pregnancy, breastfeeding, or weight loss
A lift and implants may be combined to improve position and add upper breast fullness. Other patients prefer a lift without implants for a natural result.
Breast Reduction for Comfort and Shape
Extra breast tissue, fat, and skin can be removed with breast reduction to create smaller, lighter, more balanced breasts.
Breast reduction may address:
- Pain in the neck
- Pain in the shoulders
- Back discomfort
- Shoulder grooves from bra straps
- Under-breast skin irritation
- Limited comfort during physical activity
- Difficulty finding clothing that fits
In Canada, breast reduction may be considered medically necessary for some patients. Coverage depends on provincial rules, symptoms, and medical assessment.
Revision Breast Implant Surgery
Breast implant revision adjusts or replaces existing breast implants. This surgery may address cosmetic concerns, medical concerns, or both.
Common reasons include:
- Wanting smaller or larger implants
- Rupture of an implant
- Capsular contracture, where scar tissue around an implant becomes firm
- An implant that has moved out of position
- Uneven breast appearance
- Aging changes after breast augmentation
- Choosing to remove implants
Implant removal may be combined with a breast lift. Others choose new implants with a different size, shape, or placement.
Breast Reconstruction
Breast reconstruction restores breast shape after mastectomy or lumpectomy. Implants, natural tissue, or a mix of both may be used for breast reconstruction.
Breast reconstruction may involve:
- Implant-supported breast reconstruction
- Natural tissue flap reconstruction
- Reconstruction of the nipple and areola
- Fat grafting
- Revision surgery to improve symmetry
This can be a deeply personal choice. Some people prefer to have reconstruction. Other people prefer to remain flat. Both choices are valid.
Male Chest Reduction Surgery
Male breast reduction, also called gynecomastia surgery, treats enlarged male breast tissue. Treatment may involve liposuction, gland tissue removal, or both.
Patients may consider gynecomastia surgery for:
- A puffy nipple appearance
- Extra tissue under the areola
- Chest tissue fullness
- Uneven male chest shape
- Discomfort being shirtless, exercising, or wearing fitted shirts
The best technique depends on whether the fullness is caused by fat, gland tissue, loose skin, or a mix of these.
Body Plastic Surgery Procedures
Body contouring procedures can improve shape by removing extra skin, reducing stubborn fat, or tightening tissue. Pregnancy, aging, and major weight loss are common reasons people consider body contouring.
Tummy Tuck (Abdominoplasty)
A tummy tuck or abdominoplasty removes loose abdominal skin and tightens the abdominal wall. It can also repair separated abdominal muscles, which are known as diastasis recti.
A tummy tuck may address:
- Extra abdominal skin
- A hanging lower abdomen
- Stretch marks on skin below the belly button
- A weakened or separated abdominal wall
- Abdominal changes after pregnancy or weight loss
Abdominoplasty is used for contouring, not for major weight loss. A tummy tuck is most suitable for patients at a stable weight who want a flatter, better-shaped abdomen.
Liposuction
A cannula, which is a thin tube, is used in liposuction to remove localized fat. Liposuction is not a weight-loss method, it is a contouring procedure.
Liposuction can treat:
- Abdomen
- Flanks, also called love handles
- Hip area
- Thigh contours
- Upper arm contours
- Back
- Chin-neck contour
- Male or female chest area
- Knees
Good skin tone matters. When loose skin is present, liposuction alone may not create the desired contour. When skin laxity is significant, surgery to remove skin may be a better option.
Post-Pregnancy Body Contouring
A mommy makeover combines procedures to address body changes after pregnancy, breastfeeding, or weight change. This plan often brings together breast surgery and abdominal contouring.
Mommy makeover options may include:
- Abdominal contouring with tummy tuck
- Breast lift surgery
- Surgical breast enhancement
- Reduction mammoplasty
- Liposuction
- Body fat grafting
The name can be misleading because the procedure is plastic and cosmetic surgery not limited to mothers. The procedure can apply to anyone with similar body concerns. The right plan depends on health, goals, recovery time, and whether future pregnancy is planned.
Arm Lift Surgery, Also Called Brachioplasty
An arm lift or brachioplasty improves upper arm shape by removing loose skin.
Common arm lift concerns include:
- Loose hanging skin on the upper arms
- Weight-loss-related arm skin looseness
- Aging changes in the arms
- Trouble feeling comfortable in sleeveless shirts
- Chafing from upper arm skin
The trade-off is a scar along the inner or back part of the arm. The scar may be worthwhile for patients who want better arm shape, but it should be reviewed carefully.
Inner Thigh Lift
A thigh lift removes extra loose skin from the thighs. Major weight loss is a common reason for thigh lift surgery.
Common thigh lift concerns include:
- Inner thigh skin laxity
- Rubbing in the inner thighs
- Pants that do not fit well
- Heaviness in the thighs from loose skin
- Thigh changes after weight loss or bariatric surgery
Thigh lift surgery can be done with different patterns. How much skin needs removal and where the looseness sits will guide the best option.
Body Contouring Lift
Loose skin around the lower body can be removed with a body lift. Body lift surgery can reshape the abdomen, hips, outer thighs, buttocks, and lower back.
Common reasons for body lift surgery include:
- Substantial weight loss
- Post-bariatric body changes
- Pregnancy-related body changes
- Aging-related lower-body skin looseness
This is a more involved surgery with a longer recovery. Patients should be at a stable weight and in good overall health.
Fat Grafting for Body Contouring
Fat grafting moves fat from one area of the body to another. It can be used to add natural volume or improve contour.
Body fat grafting can involve:
- Breast shape
- The buttocks
- Hips
- Facial contour
- Contour irregularities after injury or surgery
Your own tissue is used in fat grafting, but not every transferred fat cell survives. Results may change over time, and more than one session may be needed.
Skin and Scar Plastic Surgery Procedures
Plastic surgery also includes procedures that improve the skin surface, scars, and soft tissue.
Scar Treatment and Revision
Scar revision improves the look or feel of a scar. It may not erase the scar, but it can make it less raised, tight, wide, or noticeable.
Scar revision may address:
- Scars from surgery
- Injury scars
- Burn scars
- Thick scars
- Tight or pulling scars
- Scars that pull during movement
A scar revision plan may use surgery, copyright injections, laser treatment, silicone therapy, or a mix of options.
Removal of Moles, Cysts, and Skin Lesions
Plastic surgeons often remove benign skin lesions, cysts, moles, and lumps when careful closure matters. Some moles or lesions need proper medical review to make sure skin cancer is not present.
Skin lesion removal may be done for:
- Irritated skin
- A growing lesion
- Bleeding from the lesion
- Appearance concerns
- Diagnostic testing
- Comfort in daily life
Changing moles or suspicious skin lesions should be reviewed by a qualified medical professional.
Reconstruction After Skin Cancer Removal
When skin cancer is removed, plastic surgery reconstruction may help close the area and restore appearance. Common areas include the face, nose, eyelids, ears, lips, scalp, and hands.
Skin cancer reconstruction can involve:
- Direct surgical closure
- Using a skin graft
- A local flap
- A more complex repair
The goal is to remove the cancer safely while preserving function and appearance as much as possible.
Non-Surgical Cosmetic Procedures
Surgery is not needed for every patient. For some patients, non-surgical treatments help soften early aging signs, facial lines, volume loss, and skin concerns. These treatments usually involve less downtime, but results are more temporary.
BOTOX and Other Neuromodulators
Selected facial muscles can be relaxed with BOTOX and other neuromodulators. Neuromodulators are commonly chosen for lines caused by facial movement.
Common neuromodulator treatment areas include:
- Expression lines between the brows
- Horizontal forehead lines
- Eye-area smile lines
- Nose bunny lines
- Dimpling in the chin
- Selected neck bands
Neuromodulator results are temporary, so maintenance appointments are often part of the plan. Most patients want a softer, rested look rather than a frozen face.
Injectable Dermal Fillers
Dermal fillers can restore or add volume. They are often made with hyaluronic acid, a gel-like substance that shapes and supports soft tissue.
Fillers may treat:
- Lip shape
- The cheeks
- The chin
- Jawline contour
- Hollows beneath the eyes
- Lines from the nose to the mouth
- Marionette folds
Product choice, technique, anatomy, and goals all affect filler results. Overfilling may look unnatural, so conservative planning is important.
Chemical Peel Treatments
A chemical peel uses a controlled solution to improve the outer layers of skin.
Patients may consider chemical peels for:
- Skin tone irregularity
- Dull-looking skin
- Mild lines
- Skin changes from sun exposure
- Mild acne marks
- Uneven texture
Peel strength can range from light to deeper treatments. Recovery depends on peel type.
Laser, IPL, and Radiofrequency Skin Treatments
Laser and energy-based procedures can address skin tone, redness, texture, unwanted hair growth, scars, and signs of aging.
Laser and energy-based options may include:
- Resurfacing laser treatment
- Intense pulsed light treatment
- Radiofrequency skin treatments
- Skin tightening procedures
- Laser hair removal or reduction
- Laser treatment for small visible vessels
Skin type, skin tone, and the concern being treated should guide the choice of treatment. Careful selection matters for darker skin tones, where unwanted pigment changes may be a risk.
Skin Resurfacing With Dermabrasion and Microdermabrasion
Outer skin layers can be removed with dermabrasion, a deeper resurfacing procedure. Microdermabrasion is lighter and more surface-level.
These resurfacing treatments can improve:
- Uneven texture
- Minor acne scarring
- A dull complexion
- Surface irregularity
- Mild lines
The best treatment depends on the patient’s skin quality, goals, available downtime, and comfort with risk.
How to Choose the Right Plastic Surgery Procedure
The best place to start is the concern itself, not the name of a procedure. A patient may request one procedure, then find out that a different option fits their anatomy better.
This can happen in situations such as:
- Extra eyelid skin, a low brow, or both may cause heavy upper lids.
- Jawline softness may be related to skin laxity, neck bands, fat, or chin position.
- Abdominal fullness may come from fat, loose skin, separated muscles, or internal weight.
- A flat breast shape may be treated with a breast lift, breast augmentation, fat grafting, or a combined plan.
- Under-eye bags may be caused by fat pads, hollowing, skin laxity, or pigmentation.
A clear plastic surgery plan should answer three key questions:
- What is creating the concern?
- What procedure addresses the cause most directly?
- What are the trade-offs of that option?
These trade-offs may include scars, downtime, swelling, cost, maintenance, and possible complications.
Patient Concerns Before Plastic Surgery
Most patients feel a mix of emotions before plastic surgery. Excitement is common, but so are nerves. It is normal to worry about safety, pain, scars, recovery, cost, and natural-looking results.
“Will I Look Refreshed or Different?”
Many patients ask this question. Patients often want a rested look, not a changed identity. Good plastic surgery should respect the patient’s natural features, body frame, age, and style.
For many patients, the goal is better balance, not a perfect or unrealistic look.
“How Long Does Plastic Surgery Recovery Take?”
Recovery depends on the procedure. Some non-surgical treatments have little or no downtime. More extensive surgeries like tummy tuck, body lift, and mommy makeover require a more detailed recovery plan.
Plastic surgery recovery often involves:
- Temporary swelling and bruising
- Temporary activity restrictions
- Recovery time before returning to work
- Post-operative follow-up visits
- Scar care
- Slow return to workouts
- Final results that take time to settle
Healing takes time. For many procedures, results continue to refine over weeks and months.
“Can Plastic Surgery Scars Be Hidden?”
A scar forms whenever an incision is made. Surgeons aim to place scars carefully and support good healing.
Many factors affect scar quality, including:
- Your genetics
- Skin colour and tone
- Procedure type
- The incision location
- Pulling on the healing incision
- Smoking status
- How much sun the scar gets
- Scar aftercare
A scar often becomes less noticeable over time, but it will not vanish completely.
“Is Plastic Surgery Safe?”
Every surgery has risk. Plastic surgery risks may include bleeding, infection, poor scarring, anesthesia concerns, asymmetry, delayed healing, numbness, fluid buildup, and dissatisfaction.
Safety is influenced by:
- The patient’s health
- Your medications
- Smoking, vaping, or nicotine exposure
- The procedure being done
- The surgery facility
- The type of anesthesia
- The training and experience of the surgeon
- Follow-up after surgery
During consultation, patients should learn about benefits, risks, alternatives, and realistic expectations.
Canadian Plastic Surgery Considerations
Plastic surgery in Canada is guided by medical licensing, provincial colleges, hospital systems, surgical facilities, and professional standards. It is important to understand the difference between marketing language and recognized medical training.
How to Choose a Qualified Plastic Surgeon
When researching plastic surgery in Canada, patients should look for proper training and credentials. Plastic surgeons should be trained in medicine, surgery, and the specialty of plastic surgery.
Before choosing a surgeon, patients can ask:
- Are you certified as a plastic surgeon?
- Are you licensed to practise medicine in this province?
- How much experience do you have with this procedure?
- Where is the procedure performed?
- What type of anesthesia is used and who provides it?
- What complications should I understand for my situation?
- How are complications handled?
- What does post-operative follow-up include?
- May I see before-and-after examples for similar procedures?
This is not about being difficult. It is about being informed.
Cosmetic Surgery Costs in Canada
Plastic surgery pricing in Canada varies widely. Pricing depends on procedure complexity, surgeon experience, anesthesia, facility fees, implants or devices, garments, follow-up care, and location.
Fees may be higher in major Canadian cities such as Vancouver, Toronto, Calgary, Edmonton, Ottawa, and Montreal due to overhead and demand. Smaller cities may have different fees, but cost should not be the only factor.
A very low price may be a warning sign if safety, training, facility standards, or aftercare are being reduced.
Surgery Abroad vs. Plastic Surgery in Canada
Some patients in Canada consider medical tourism to save money on surgery. Medical tourism can seem attractive, but it adds risks that should be reviewed.
Risks or challenges with medical tourism may include:
- Limited follow-up care
- Travel soon after surgery
- Possible infection
- Different facility or safety standards
- Harder access to records
- Difficulty finding care for complications at home
- Communication barriers
- Unexpected revision costs
When surgery is done closer to home, follow-up may be easier if concerns or complications occur.
Preparing for a Plastic Surgery Consultation
Your consultation is the time to understand what can be done safely and realistically. You should not feel rushed or pressured during the consultation.
You can prepare for the visit by doing the following:
- List your main concerns before the visit.
- Bring a list of your medications and supplements.
- Prepare to discuss your medical history.
- Be honest about smoking, vaping, cannabis, and nicotine use.
- Bring photos if they help explain your goals.
- Review recovery, scars, risks, and alternative treatments.
- Ask what can realistically be achieved for your face or body.
Your consultation should include a clear review of your options. Sometimes the best advice is to wait, choose a smaller treatment, improve health first, or avoid surgery.
Who May Be a Good Candidate?
The best candidates for plastic surgery are often healthy, informed, and realistic. Plastic surgery can improve appearance, but good candidates know it cannot create perfection or solve every concern.
You may be a good candidate if:
- Your overall health is good
- You can explain a clear concern
- Your weight is stable if you are considering body surgery
- You can avoid smoking and nicotine before and after surgery
- You know what to expect during recovery
- You accept the risks, scars, and trade-offs
- You are choosing the procedure for yourself
- You have realistic goals
Surgery may need to wait if you are pregnant, planning major weight loss, using nicotine, managing an unstable medical condition, or feeling pressured by another person.
Combined Plastic Surgery Procedures
Some procedures may be combined safely. Other surgeries may need to be done in stages. A combined plan may save recovery time, but it also needs careful planning because surgery time and healing demands may increase.
Examples of combined procedures include:
- Facelift with neck lift
- Blepharoplasty with brow lift
- Combining rhinoplasty and chin surgery
- Breast lift with augmentation
- Abdominal contouring with tummy tuck and liposuction
- Breast and body procedures in a mommy makeover
- Body lift with thigh or arm contouring
- Facial surgery combined with fat grafting
A safe combined plan should consider health, surgery length, anesthesia, recovery support, and risk.
Final Thoughts on Types of Plastic Surgery Procedures in Canada
Plastic surgery in Canada includes many cosmetic and reconstructive procedures. Some options are designed to refine facial, breast, or body shape. Other procedures focus on repair after cancer, injury, burns, or medical conditions. Non-surgical cosmetic options can help soften wrinkles, restore volume, improve texture, and address early aging changes.
The right procedure is not always the most popular option. The best plan is based on anatomy, goals, health, and personal comfort.
The strongest treatment plan should focus on safety, natural-looking results, clear expectations, and proper follow-up care. Whether you are considering eyelid surgery, rhinoplasty, breast augmentation, tummy tuck, liposuction, facelift surgery, or reconstructive plastic surgery, the first step is learning what each option can and cannot do.